Importance of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication Effective interpersonal communication helps us express ourselves and share our thoughts and opinions with the people around us. Learn how this effects different areas of our lives, especially in our workplaces. Ads by Google Happy Marriage Secrets    Want to Fireproof Your Marriage? Do Marriage God’s Way   BiblicalCounselingInsights. com Enlarge ImageTo effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others. ~ Anthony RobbinsInterpersonal communication is the process that helps us express our feelings, ideas, and thoughts and share them with the people around us. Efficient interpersonal communication is a very good quality that helps people in every aspect of life be it personal or professional. It is the process where a person expresses his thoughts, converts the thoughts into a well designed message and sends the message across a communication channel (oral, visual, written, etc) and the receiver receives the message and responds to the message and sends his reply via the communication channel.Interpersonal communication can be a formal dialog between two people at a workplace, or even an informal tete-a-tete between two friends. Communication can occur with or without words and through a number of communication media. 1. Oral Communication (Speaking face-to-face or on the phone) 2. Written Communication (Writing emails, letters, instant messaging and texting) 3. Visual Communication (Body Language or sign language) Factors that Determine the Efficiency of Communication 1.Clarity of Message: The way in which the sender presents a message plays an instrumental role in the success or failure of the communication process. A message should be formulated taking into account the receiver's frame of mind and simple message formulation that conveys the correct meaning. 2. Communication Channel: Choose the right com munication channel according to the situation and the receiver. For example think whether in a particular situation having a face-to-face conversation would be a better option instead of speaking on the phone, or writing an email. . Rapport between Sender and Receiver: If the sender and the receiver share a common background and have faced similar experiences, it increases the mutual understanding level and hence enhances the outcome of the communication process. The development of rapport will depend on the educational background, social background, family upbringing and the kind of experiences the person has come across. Styles of Interpersonal Communication There are various styles of this form of communication and that we adopt into our lives depending on how we need it. Controlling StyleThe controlling style is actually a style of interpersonal communication wherein the sender leaves little or no room for the receiver to provide feedback or reply. People who are generally senio r in workplace hierarchy use it to communicate with their subordinates and although this style might prove to be an efficient form of communication during crisis situations, it can intimidate the receiver or the audience and can actually create a communication gap. Egalitarian Style The Egalitarian style is much more efficient than the controlling style since it facilitates healthy two-way communication wherein information is shared mutually.This style of communication encourages the participants to express their ideas and hence creates a cooperative and healthy atmosphere. Structuring Style The structuring style is generally used to communicate specific goals and bring coordination to an organization. To avoid making this a one-way conversation it is always better to modify this style and keep it more open to responses from the audience. Dynamic Style This is style is a high-energy approach which involves use of motivating words and phrases to encourage the person to get inspired a nd achieve a certain goal.However this style cannot function when the receiver does not have enough knowledge about the required action desired out of him/her. Relinquishing Style The relinquishing style is highly open for ideas to the extent that it can transfer the responsibility of the communication to the receiver. This style of communication works well when the sender and the receiver are equally interested in carrying the conversation ahead. Withdrawal Style It is ironic to call this process a style of interpersonal communication since the withdrawal style is basically the failure or lack of communication.This is a style is where a person shows complete disinterest to participate in the communication process or carry it forward. By Uttara Manohar Last Updated: 9/30/2011 Ads by Google Knowing your Personality    Most detailed Personality Assessment on the Internet   www. personalitybook. com Leading M-Wallet Platform    TagPay powers mobile money services in over 30 count ries worldwide. www. tagattitude. fr Free Training Materials    Instant Download, Trainer Resources Training Games, Exercises and Tools   www. trainerbubble. om Elite Process Service    Colorado Springs Pueblo Canon City ;amp; All Of Colorado 719. 362. 5556   www. processservicecolorado. com communicating    Wanna guilin tours info? Here it is credit-based, keep improving. www. guilinprivatetours. com Plastic Recycling Line    Plastic Recycling Line High Quality,Low Price,Inquire Now! www. PuRui-China. com Marriage With Foreign Men    Foreign Men Seek African Ladies For Dating ;amp; Marriage. Join Free Today! KenyanCupid. com/Marriage Read more at Buzzle:  http://www. buzzle. com/articles/interpersonal-communication. html Interpersonal Relationships at WorkInterpersonal relationships at work are really important for carrying out the daily processes with effective communication and understanding among employees†¦ Ads by Google Team Coach Training    Certified c oach training in Joburg 19-20 Nov – track to ICF credential   www. enterprisecoach. co. za/ICF-cert A cardinal principle of Total Quality escapes too many managers: you cannot continuously improve interdependent systems and processes until you progressively perfect interdependent, interpersonal relationships. – Stephen R. Covey In today's corporate world, there is a need for work to be done as quickly as possible.And for this purpose, working professionals need to have good relations between each other. Healthy professional relations can be maintained by effective workplace communication and teamwork. Interpersonal relationships gradually develop with good team participation and communication with other members. On the other hand, these relationships may deteriorate when a person leaves the group and stops being in touch. In order to create and maintain these relationships , you need to consider some simple, yet significant aspects. Importance of Interpersonal Relati onships at WorkYou can say that everything at the office depends on good relationships between employees and the management. Interpersonal relationships are absolutely essential, as they help workers to have a mutual understanding between themselves. The main benefit is that they work in a team. And it is a proven fact that if you need to reach a goal or a target in your process, you necessarily have to work together in a team. If there are healthy interpersonal relationships in the team members, they certainly tend to work collectively towards the prescribed goal. Teamwork also contributes a lot to a healthy work environment.Employees feel good to work if there is a favorable environment at the workplace. If employees have a mutual understanding with each other, there are very less chances of any kind of workplace conflicts. It is also been observed that strong interpersonal relationships lead to motivation among employees. Using Interpersonal Skills at Workplace Communication is o ne of the most crucial interpersonal skills to be practiced at the workplace. Without effective interpersonal communication, there will not be a smooth and clear flow of ideas, resulting in confusion.A true professional will always talk to other executives, with looking directly into the eyes. Always smile when you speak with others, in a face to face talk or even on the phone. The smile will make others comfortable and it will also be apparent in the tone while on the phone. While you speak, make sure your tone is humble and not authoritative, even if you are the boss. Consider helping your colleagues a privilege, with always being happy to help. A very effective way of maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships is to appreciate the efforts in front of everyone.Honoring and considering suggestions and views of other members in the team is a very good method of teamwork. When communicating with other executives, it is fine if you add a bit of humor to the scene, just to release the stress and tension involved. Make sure you do not get involved in the blame game. Always ensure that you stick to what you said you will do. Fulfilling commitments is one major aspect that you will have to consider in creating good business relationships. It is a good idea to share what you recently accomplished and found out.This creates a feeling of openness among the team members. One important point to note is that you will only be satisfied with your job if there are healthy interpersonal relationships at work. By Stephen Rampur Published: 7/13/2010 Ads by Google Happy Marriage Secrets    Want to Fireproof Your Marriage? Do Marriage God’s Way   BiblicalCounselingInsights. com How to be a Pilot    Commercial, Private Pilot Training Accredited Pilot and Flight School   EpicFlightAcademy. com Read more at Buzzle:  http://www. buzzle. com/articles/interpersonal-relationships-at-work. html

Fighting the Long War Essay

The strategy outlined in â€Å"Fighting the Long War† is a good one. There are, of course, other options. One is to flee and do nothing more than we have already done. Yet, as the presentation’s authors suggest, this would almost certainly lead to the ruin of America. Stopping action now will not clear away centuries of hate and rage, nor will it erase the religious and political goals of a long committed enemy. Those who are less patient and less willing to lose men to a war, might suggested a shorter war, brought about by greater use of force. The military has been tied back and prevented from executing its full power in the Middle East. The United States could, if it wished, use its nuclear weapons against the enemy. Yet it does not. This may be a good thing. Using nuclear weapons would be unquestionably risky. Other countries which boast nuclear technologies might be tempted to retaliate, which could lead to the eventual destruction of American cities. It could also lead to chaos with unpredictable outcomes. Therefore, the best strategy seems to be to follow the long war approach of the presenters. Perhaps the most important point made in the presentation, was that Americans need to understand the nature and necessity of a long war and that they need to be able to trust their leaders. The main objection to involvement in Iraq was not that Sadam Hussein did not need to be stopped – it was that President Bush went in with the wrong motives. Whether the president’s motives were benevolent or malevolent, much of the American public distrusted him and this hurt the war effort substantially. Also of great import is the section on promoting the good points of peaceful Islam. Criticizing a person’s religion often triggers hostility. Those who have already been provoked by maltreatment by non-Muslims are much more likely to be converted violent extremism than those who have lived peacefully among their peers for many years. Promoting Islam’s peaceful movements, then, is a good counter-measure. Likewise, promoting assistance in rebuilding and democratizing Iraq is an excellent idea. Japan has certainly come a long way. It would be nice if Iraq could too.

Belonging †Black Swan & Romulus My Father Essay

The experience of belonging is a deep human instinct that is forged through steady connections to place, people and eventually a world of thoughts that keep our existence stable. The failure to maintain these connections can lead to the eruption of alienation, isolation and tragedy. These intensely moving human experiences are investigated in Raimond Gaita’s biographical memoir ‘Romulus My Father’ and Darren Aronofsky’s film ‘Black Swan’. Good morning teacher and classmates. The text ‘Black Swan’ is a film directed by Darren Aronofsky. It is about a ballerina, Nina, who is elected for the main role in the classic ballet performance Swan Lake. She must play both the white and black swan but can only dance the white. She strives to belong in the position as the black swan and succeed in her role, but in doing so she spirals into insanity. My collage of pictures from the movie Black Swan, defines the importance of acceptance as an essential foundation of belonging. Without the acceptance of a person into their surroundings, it becomes difficult for them to believe that they have a sense of belonging, which is what lead Nina to insanity. Although acceptance is a key factor in belonging, identity and relationships can alter the acceptance of the individual. This is displayed when Nina morphs into her evil twin, the black swan that eventually corrupts her identity and total sense of belonging. At times Nina doesn’t feel as though she belongs in herself. Her mind-controlling mother is a big factor in this as she obviously has border issues and keeps strict control over all phases of Nina’s life. Because of this childish way Nina is treated, she feels trapped in her own little world, causing her to feel a sense of not belonging. Nina’s bedroom is displayed in the movie as very juvenile with butterflies on the wall, a big white rabbit, a ballerina music box and an over all theme of baby pink. The white rabbit next to the window is a symbol of mind control, which originates from the movie Alice in Wonderland. By Alice following the rabbit she is lead to an alternate world, wonderland, which results in dissociation, exactly what Nina feels throughout the movie. Throughout the movie Nina thrives to be accepted and belong in the role of the black swan. Thomas, the ballet director selects Nina for the Swan Queen, which means she has to play the roles of both the white and black swan, both completely opposite characters. Thomas knows that the meticulous dancer is perfect for the role of White Swan, but knows Nina’s frigid style will struggle to pull off the twisted, sexual and dangerous character of the Black Swan. Whilst watching Nina dance he says, â€Å"I knew the White Swan wouldn’t be a problem. The real work would be your metamorphosis into her evil twin. † For Nina to belong in both roles as the White and Black Swan she must master good and evil; light and darkness. This concept of duality is so vital, but as Nina lets the Black Swan gain power she begins hallucinating and starts to see all sorts of strange mutations on her body. Nina has no idea how these appear and falls into an utter state of confusion, not feeling as though she belongs in her own skin anymore. Motifs being Mirrors and Black Wings are used throughout the movie as signs of psychosis and the force of the Black Swan into Nina’s White Swan like character. The Black Swan evidently does not belong in Nina and therefore begins to destruct. Mirrors symbolically reflect the true state of Nina’s mind. As the Black Swan continues to take over, creepy images are reflected as though it has a mind of its own. As these images are reflected Nina realises she does no longer belong to her own reflection and that she has a completely separate creature living inside her. It obviously does not belong in her as it acts totally out of her control. Right before Ninas big performance as the Black Swan she fights against herself in her dressing room. During the fight a mirror breaks, this represents the collapse of the psychological boundary separating both creatures. The shattering of the mirror, results in Nina becoming the Black Swan. Black wings symbolically represent the force of the Black Swan into Nina, at different stages of the movie. Shortly after being crowned ‘Swan Queen’, Nina is fascinated by a creepy statue with wings spread. Little does she know it represents what she is about to become. Black Wings also appear on the back of Ninas friend Lily, and attached to Nina at the end of her ‘perfect’ performance as the Black Swan. She is briefly shown with black wings, symbolizing that she has become ‘one’ with the Black Swan and it now belongs inside her. After her transformation, Nina fails to maintain stability between places, people and her thoughts, and as stated in the thesis, this consequently leads to tragedy. The whole process of marrying the white and black, good and evil, light and dark consumes her. The black swan completely possesses her and becomes this destructive force that she cannot live with. After a long process of tormenting her physically and mentally, Ninas sense of belonging finally collapses and she believes she cannot go on. The only way she can free herself is by committing suicide, and that she does. Raimond Gaita’s memoir ‘Romulus My Father’, tells the story of his father Romulus who migrated to Australia with his wife and son. Gaita’s story of his father investigates the events of his life and defines the troubles that Romulus had trying to belong to the Australian culture. Like Nina, Romulus tries his hardest and does everything he can to be accepted. Romulus My Father explores a sense of familiar belonging and how it shapes who we are. In the novel a deep sense of belonging is present within the narrator himself. The narrator delivers observations in a reflective and thoughtful tone. High modality of verbs suggests pleasant nostalgia about events in the book. A sense of belonging between Raimond and his father is displayed in the quote, â€Å"I loved him too deeply†¦no quarrel could estrange us†. Even after Christina dies, Raimonds aspects of belonging is family and culture, â€Å"we came together as son and husband with the woman whose remains lay beneath us†. Juxtaposed against Raimonds belonging is suffering of Christina in her displacement. The mothers inability to belong is described by Raimond as â€Å"a troubled city girl, she could not settle†¦ in a landscape that highlighted her isolation†. The depressed tone that Raimond conveys, suggests that Christine could not fit into the community and in Australia. Because of this lack of belonging she is lead to isolation and alienation, which results in her betraying her family, which is juxtaposed by â€Å"I felt awkward with her†. This shows Raimonds relationship with his mother has lost the familiar belonging it once contained. The parent and child relationship gives belonging to both Raimond and Romulus. Raimond gives his father strength to overcome constant tragedy, â€Å"my son is everything to me† and â€Å"never say I don’t love you†. Romulus does everything he can to give his son a better life â€Å"he denied himself so I would have more†. Other central themes that force the characterizations of Romulus and Raimond are cultural and national belonging. Although pleasure and security is found in Victoria, a strong connection exists between Raimond and Romulus and their origin, Europe. Raimonds similes about his father display his sense of isolation in Australia, â€Å"he longed for European society, saying that he felt like a prisoner in Australia. Raimond found that there was an absence of belonging in Australia, which is a sense of nationality and ethnicity. Verbal irony is used by Raimond, â€Å"They called him Jack†, which shows that even though the town tried to make Romulus belong by changing his name, he still decided to keep his won. Even though Romulus belongs to his community he still felt an absence of belonging that he did not want replaced with a simple name-change. The way that the narrator constantly refers to Europe displays that they still have a strong connection to their home where extra pleasure, comfort and sense of belonging can be found. Our belonging and who we are is shaped by our context. ‘Romulus My Father’ by Raimond Gaita explores the definitive nature of cultural and familiar belonging. â€Å"Black Swan† by Darren Aronofsky allows the viewer to experience the dark side of entertainment through mind control, manipulation and immortality clashing with success and recognition and the destruction that can be caused on an individual when they do not connect with their sense of belonging. Together these texts allow us to examine both positive and negative aspects of belonging.

Chinese History, Mao Zedong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Chinese History, Mao Zedong - Essay Example As a result, Mao urged for the overthrow of the leaders that were against the party ideals through violent means. In the 1960’s, Mao as a leader of CPC observed that the leadership of in China was against revolutionary theory and hence likely to support the ideas of those opposed to communism. The period also saw the weakening of Mao political powers due to the failure of the â€Å"Great Leap Forward†. There was also increased economic crisis because of poor policies adopted by the regime. Mao began to reassert his authority by putting into leadership those of his views to attack existing party leadership. Such people included Jiang Qing Mao wife and Lin Biao the defense minister. The period saw the advent of Cultural Revolution in august 1966. The major effect was closure of schools and urging youth to take into task the party leadership for their support of non-communist values and lack of revolutionary spirit. The movement turned violent after a short period. The stu dents were in the forefront in the violence. They had formed the Red Guards that was responsible for harassing the aged and intellect in the Chinese society. This paper focuses on the role of violence in Chinese revolution in advancing political power and control of political dissent. Chinese revolution was characterized majorly by violence. The violence played a significant role to the achievement of the goals of the revolution. The violence mainly focused on countering anti revolutionary ideas and consolidation of powers. First, the violence helped in countering ideologies that were seen as going against the revolutionary ideas. In the initial phase of the revolution, violence was used to stem out those leaders that were seen leaning to capitalist ideas. The leaders were seen as a threat to Mao ideology of having a communist society. One of the targeted leaders was

Nursing Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursing Theories - Essay Example This is fundamental since nursing theories are derived from models comprised of the following components: the person or self, environment, health and nursing. These four metaparadigm concepts can be observed in all nursing models and forms the framework from which each theory as a whole functions (Rogers, 1989). This paper aims to evaluate the definitions of the concept of health and illness in two nursing theories namely, Margaret Newman's "Health as Expanding Consciousness" and Martha Roger's "Science of Unitary Human Beings." Margaret Newman's systems model recognizes the person as a comprehensive system. Within this system are constituent elements including the physiological factor, psychological factor, sociological factor, spiritual factor and developmental factor which according to her are in a complex interrelationship (Newman, 1992). With regards to health, Margaret Newman maintains that health is the manifestation of the realm of consciousness. Consciousness is defined as the capability of the human system to gather and process information regarding the self and the environment. However, according to Newman, consciousness is not limited to the cognitive and affective faculties that characterize the basic notion of consciousness but also includes the dynamism of the whole living system (Newman, 1997). The consciousness of the system, accord... "Science of Unitary Beings" by Martha Rogers Martha Rogers's system model considers the person or individual as a unit or unified whole which is constantly in direct interaction with the surrounding environment. According to her, health and illness are the products and manifestations of the human life process. She gives a scientific model for nursing that is based on concept of health as the systematic function of the physical body and illness as the state of dysfunction of the components of the human life processes (Rogers, 1975) Health is seen by Martha Rogers as the integration of the physicochemical properties of life that is constant interaction with the immediate environment which are also imminent in the energy fields inherent in the two areas. The energy field that constitutes the person's or the individual's complex systems are in direct contact with the energy field of the environment which may be assigned as the surrounding living and non-living forms. Therefore, the energy fields that is present in this larger system is made up of the living and the non-living forms of the person and the environment. The open mode of the person and environment energy fields promotes an interchange of energy between the two which leads to the kind of nature or state of the system classified into either health or illness (Rogers, 1989). Health Concepts Comparison and Analysis The main point of comparison between Newman's and Rogers' use of the concept of health in their respective theories arises in the nature and impact of the perception of constitution of the person. The first similarity lies in the consideration of the person's physical and

Cloning and the Future Doom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cloning and the Future Doom - Essay Example I believe cloning is treading on thin ice, danger lurks below the surface; it is like opening a Pandora's Box. Dr Patrick Dixon has written several articles that prove the disadvantages of cloning (http://www.globalchange.com/noclones.htm). He enumerates three reasons why we should say no to cloning: health risks from mutation of genes; emotional risks; and the risk of abuse of the technology. An abnormal baby is one possible result of cloning since the material used is taken from an adult, there is a tendency that the newborn baby will have adult genes. According to Dixon, "Many attempts at animal cloning produced disfigured monsters with severe abnormalities." He adds, "Dolly the Sheep died prematurely of severe lung disease in February 2003, and also suffered from arthritis at an unexpectedly early age - probably linked to the cloning process." The many abnormal results are aborted and terminated by the researchers for fear that they would grow to be dangerous beings. Secondly, Dixon illustrates that the cloned person will be faced with a number of problems in relating with the other members of the family and the community and vice versa. Confusion that is brought about by the usual relationships as brother, sister, mother and father and even twins will have to be dealt with. For instance, how can a father relate to his daughter who is a clone of his wife, and how will the other members of the family relate to a clone of their dead brother or sister Finally, there is the risk of abuse of the technology where certain powerful leaders in every generation will be tempted to "seek to abuse this technology for their own purposes." Dixon adds, "You cannot have so-called therapeutic cloning without reproductive cloning because the technique to make cloned babies is the same as to make a cloned embryo to try to make replacement tissues" (http://www.globalchange.com/noclones.htm). Obviously, the aforementioned disadvantages are solid reasons for me to believe that cloning does not promise a brilliant and safe future. Although most of the cloning researches are aimed at alleviating solutions to scientific and medical problems, more danger is in store for the coming generation. What if the abnormal clones will not be controlled and terminated at an early stage According to scholars, certain abnormalities are not detected at an early stage. Some may take twenty or more years to manifest. What will happen to the emotional make-up of the clones Can they ever live normal and happy lives when they appear to intrude into the normal and natural means of family reproduction and relations There will be a need for more psychologists to cater to the clones' emotional and psychological needs. Lastly, is cloning technology safe enough from possible abuse of powerful leaders who may want to use it for their personal purposes Life is sacred. Human beings are created in the image of God. Each individual is endowed with unique characteristics that even identical twins are not really identical in many ways. Creating a replica of a person close to you or a loved one does not assure that the clone will behave and react in the same way as the original. Just recently, my brother died of vehicular accident. It was so sudden that we were not even able to tell him how much we love him. My other brother did not even have a chance to be reconciled with him. Such a loss was so intense that until now we still grieve so much for

DEPENDS ON WHAT YOU WRITE IT ON Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

DEPENDS ON WHAT YOU WRITE IT ON - Essay Example The revolution in Russia that occurred in 1917 has a central place in the history of the world as well, the history of states that fall within the league of Baltic nations. These constitute Lithuania and Latvia as well as Estonia. The people of the Baltic nations also played a central role in the revolution of 1917, with significant stress on the Bolsheviks in Latvia, who primarily constituted a significant majority of the famous Red Guards that made it their duty to take side with the Bolsheviks in Russia which was absolutely critical at the initial times of the revolution. In the earlier revolution periods in 1905, which was the pioneer revolution in Russia, peasants that were scattered all over the Baltic states took advantage of the Russian Revolution to aggress against their leaders. At given varied moments in history, peasants from Latvia as well as Estonia had been under the rule of the Tsarist regime in Russia, the Swedish kingdom as well as the nobility in German. Peasants in Lithuania had been under the rule of Russia and prior to that, the Kingdom of Poland (1569-1791). The peasants in the ruled states took advantage of the revolution in Russia to control their destiny in their respective states by agitating for establishment of self rule. Despite this fact, the revolution did not lead into immediate independence as they had to wait until the period ranging from 1918-1940 for independence. The people that formed the citizenry of Baltic States which primarily are the present Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia, had been under the manacles of serfdom that characterised their existence from periods that traced back from the twelfth century to the entire 19th century. The Baltic region has in history formed ground for confrontation. The most notable of its rulers were the nobility in Germany as well as Poland, Sweden as well as the Tsarist regime in Russia. A significant majority of the Baltic Population that constituted Lithuanians, Estonians and Latvians

Response to the Movie Sicko In medical sociology terms Essay

Response to the Movie Sicko In medical sociology terms - Essay Example rom the 2006 National Health Interview Survey† highlighted that in 2006, â€Å"there were 43.6 million Americans of all ages who did not have health insurance (at the time of the interview), or 14.8% of the population† (cdc.gov). With this, some people could not help but complain to the somewhat awful situation that they are in. In the same way, SiCKO (directed by Michael Moore), a movie from The Weinstein Company and Dog Eat Dog Productions, documented the alarming health issues that the contemporary Americans are facing nowadays. The movie revealed how health services in the US are made nearly unavailable and mostly unaffordable to its citizenry by its increasing costs and profit maximization by giant insurance companies. Also, SiCKO compared US’ health care to other nations such as Canada, Great Britain, France, and even Cuba, with an astonishing revelation of their free and low-costs health care services to its people. Thus, the following sections of this pape r exemplified my response to the movie in medical sociology terms. As we all know, without even mentioning the exact figures, Americans are now living in the world where there is a significant increase in diseases like cardiovascular disorders and cancers. Of course, this can be attributed to people’s negative health behaviors and lifestyles, which include lack of exercise and dietary conditions that predispose them to these diseases. In an instance, Michael Moore narrated in the movie that in France, people get to enjoy their wine, cigarettes, and fatty foods. These behaviors and lifestyles do have a direct impact on health. But Moore augmented that despite these French indulgences, just like Canadians and Brits, they live much longer than the Americans do. â€Å"Something about that seemed grossly unfair†, said Moore. Moreover, Dr. Jacques Milliez, Head of Obstetrics, St. Antoine Hospital, said in his interview with Moore that in France, â€Å"you pay according to your means and you receive according

Citizen Engagement in development research Essay

Citizen Engagement in development research - Essay Example Its purpose is to contribute in meaningful ways to specific public policy decisions in a transparent and accountable manner". (Phillips, 2002) Around the period centering 1970s, the different governments, especially of the Western nations, more profoundly thought of extending the responsibilities of the citizens and gradually increased and spread the application of the plans in various arenas primarily including the social and infrastructural bodies to address more deeply the quintessential aspects of education and health. Citizens were encouraged to intensively participate and monitor in many small developmental projects and related campaigns in their respective community areas.  Lack of substantial civilian involvement at that period prompted many theories to be developed and scrutinized at this very context. There have been several approaches and detailed theoretical study and discussion regarding literature of public involvement in developmental affairs of the governance. Many such views were studied exhaustively and dissected minutely to frame administrative policies across the nations of the world. One such view to understand the role of civilians in attaining developmental goals was the neo-liberal market approach. The main argument of the neo-liberal market approach is a continually sustained moderation of the government authority through a proper mix of privatization and decentralization policies (Gaventa, 2007). In this particular framework, the main critic is the civilians are mechanically.

Managing Director on WTO Impact and Helping Enter New Markets Dissertation

Managing Director on WTO Impact and Helping Enter New Markets - Dissertation Example Also, the access to previously untapped markets has greatly helped the global economy as well as the different efforts of various countries and their governments to fight off poverty. Indeed, the economic activity that has been fuelled by trade liberalisation has contributed positively to the overall struggle to help ease poverty albeit there remain some countries as well as sectors that have yet to benefit fully from free trade (Mortishead 2006). Still, it cannot be denied that overall; free trade has provided immense opportunities that companies can take advantage of. Thus, for companies that are targeting to go global, it is important to factor in to their strategies the innate benefits of free trade that consumers have come to expect as well as the prospect of having more competitors and intricate transactions in the complex global marketplace (Wyld and Thomas 2011). Background, Aims and Objectives The liberalisation of trade has enabled globalization to gain much traction by all owing access to companies to previously untapped markets as well to take advantage of the different competitive advantages of various countries that can help them mitigate their costs and thereby increase their respective bottomlines. From its early years, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to its current WTO form, the organisation has pushed for greater trade liberalisation in order to maximize the potential of various nations as well as to hear out the pressing concerns that are being voiced out by member countries. Encouragingly, the recent Uruguay round has ushered in new, better and more binding agreements since there are more trade issues that have been sealed by more member nations compared to previous WTO rounds (A Round to End All Rounds, 2011). The increase in the trade agreements as well as the more numerous number of members that have joined together for the Uruguay round has greatly boosted the scope of trade liberalisation. Also, the membership of the pr eviously reclusive China has vastly increased the size of the global market since this country has the largest population all over the world. Consequently, there have been important policy adjustments that have been promulgated by the Chinese to support their membership to the global marketplace. Hence, there have been adjustments in their economic policies as well as their social and legal systems in order for them to qualify for WTO membership. Probably the most important of this was the lowering of their tariffs which have previously barred foreign competitors from entering their economy (Chow 2001). Another important contribution by trade liberalisation was the rise of the private sector which has immensely contributed to the growth of their respective economies and aggregately to the global economy as a whole (Wharton University Articles 2006). The free flow of products and services has also been accompanies by the flow of capital from the richer countries to the developing cou ntries. All these have been made possible when borders and barriers have been significantly brought down by free trade (Wacziarg and Spolaore 2004). Hence, there has been a strong improvement of the global economy as a whole with these important reforms that has been the fruit of having a strengthened free trade and the demolition or easing of protectionist policies between nations. Thus, companies are able to move freely across the borders of different nations gaining important new markets for their products as well as possible cheaper labour that are

Contact Lens clinical case report (postgraduate Optometry studies) Essay - 1

Contact Lens clinical case report (postgraduate Optometry studies) - Essay Example Subsequently, another pair of lenses was required and he was doing well. His mother has taken the commitment for lens insertion at night before sleeping, removal at morning and proper cleaning and storage. Boston cleaner was used for cleaning, saline for rinsing and Boston advance conditioning solution for storing. This is one of the after care visits. The patient comes with his mother and states no complaints. His mother informs the optometrist that the entire family is going to spend the next two months overseas and the departure date is during this week. Unaided visual acuity was R: 6/6-, L: 6/7.5, while unaided binocular vision was 6/6-. Over refraction was R: -0.25 DS (VA 6/6) and L: -1.25 DS (VA 6/6). When the lens measurements are taken, it is revealed that lenses have been interchanged and the patient has been wearing incorrect lenses for the last six months. This explains the difference in unaided visual acuity between the eyes and the lack of correction in left eye. Slit lamp evaluation shows a Dystrophy like change in the cornea, more significant on the right eye with no limbal injection. Its location is in mid periphery corneal stroma extending from 9 to 4 o’clock in the right eye and from 10 to 2 o’clock on the left. Anterior segment images of OCT show white opacity in anterior stroma. The patient needs to discontinue wearing OK lens for the next period because of the dystrophy change noted in the cornea. Besides, it will be difficult to monitor the corneal change since the patient will be spending holidays overseas. Therefore, the patient has been advised to cease wearing lenses and using disposable contact lenses until regression of OK treatment occurs. The powers of daily contact lenses, to be worn in the same order for both eyes, are as follows: -0.75 DS, -1.25 Ds, -2.00 DS, -2.50 DS, -3.00 DS. In addition, the patient has been provided a pair of -3.50 DS monthly contact lenses to be worn on a daily basis, besides his

Effect of Internal Controls on Financial Performance Essay Example for Free

Effect of Internal Controls on Financial Performance Essay Over the past decade, Africa and other developing regions have been in the midst of tremendous changes. Market liberalization and governmental decentralization policies have interfaced with globalization and urbanization trends to dramatically transform social, political, economic and cultural lives. In this context of rapid change, SME operations can no longer remain behind serving only to meet sustenance income for their owners. SMEs engagements have to become a dynamic and integral part of the market economy. The identification of factors that determine new venture performance such as survival, growth or profitability has been one of the most central fields of entrepreneurship research (Sarasvathy, 2004). A multitude of research papers has focused on exploring various variables and their impact on performance (Bamford et al., 2004). However, in order to be able to analyze and model the performance of new ventures and SMEs, the complexity and dynamism they are facing as well as the fact that they may not be a homogenous group but significantly different in regard to many characteristics (Gartner et al., 1989) have to be taken into account. In line with the above, there have been challenging debates all over the world on the role played by Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards economic development. Therefore, a vast literature on the growth and performance of SMEs has been developed over the years. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have had a privileged treatment in the development literature, particularly over the last two decades. Hardly any arguments are put forward against SMEs, even if development policies do not necessarily favour them and economic programs, voluntarily or not, often continue to result in large capital investment. Arguments for SMEs come from almost all corners of the development literature programs, particularly in the less developed countries (LDCs), tend to emphasise the role of SMEs, even if practical results differ from the rhetoric. (Carlos Nuno Castel-Branco. May, 2003) Therefore, SMEs seem to be an accepted wisdom within the development debate. It is believed that growth in SMEs should have a positive effect on the living conditions of the people, their income level, housing, utilities. Castel-Branco (2003), in a study, revealed that this is not always true because areas where SMEs are performing so well attracts public attention and many competitors begin to troop into the area. This subsequently leads to over congestion with its associated problems of which accommodation is not an exception. The structure of SMEs in Ghana as perhaps one of the main engines of growth can be viewed as rural and urban enterprises. For urban enterprises, they can either be planned or unplanned. The planned-urban enterprises are characterized by paid employees with registered offices whereas unplanned-urban enterprises are mostly confined to the home, open space, temporal wooden structures, and employment therein is family or apprentices oriented. In the recent pursuit of economic progress, Ghana as a developing country has generally come to recognize that the SME sector may well be the main driving force for growth, due to its entrepreneurial resources and employment opportunities. Nevertheless, the existing attempts to explore empirically the roles played by SME in the economic development of a nation are still somewhat ambiguous. This can be attributed, more or less, to the fact that when examining economic progress per se, economists have tended to ignore the industrial structure of the economy and the impact this can have on such development. The ambiguity of the role of SMEs has therefore necessitated the need for a study to be conducted to access the actual impact of the proliferation of SMEs on the inhabitants of the Medina community. 1.2 Problem Statement The small business sector is recognized as an integral component of economic development and a crucial element in the effort to lift countries out of poverty (Wolfenson, 2001). The dynamic role of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries as engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved has long been recognized. The growth of small scale businesses in Ghana so rapid, that it is now seen as a daily affair. Many Potential owners of SMEs move to areas where the feel they can succeed to set them up there. More so, many factors may contribute to the movement of people to settle at certain geographical areas. It is believed that the factors that influence migration include the need for peaceful and violent free environment, the need for fertile business locations, the desire for privacy, government policy and a host of others. Specifically, with reference to the above, the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region has experienced a noticeable growth and increase in the number movements into the area and for that matter SMEs increase in the last few years. It is important to mention that some research studies have been conducted to determine the real impact of migrations on host societies. In line with the above, this study sorts to assess the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the scio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. 1.3 Objectives: 1.3.1 Main Objective The main objective of this study is to assess the general impact of the plorefication of SMEs in Medina on the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives 1. To assess the nature and forms of SMEs in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men. 2. To identify the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and to rank them in order of importance. 3. Assess the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina. 4. To assess the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding. 5. To determine the factors that account for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community 6. To assess the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina 1.4 Research Questions The study shall provide answers to the following research questions: 1. What is the nature of SME operation in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men? 2. What are the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and which are ranked more importance? 3. What are the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina? 4. What are the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding? 5. What factors have accounted for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community? 6. What are the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina? 1.5 Justification of the Study It is difficult to analyze the performance, nature of operation and behavior of the SME sector in Ghana due to the lack of comprehensive data on them and their activities. The sector is not classified into sub-sectors and the last industrial survey was conducted in 1995 but covered only medium and large-scale industries. In respect of this, the justification of this study rests on the fact that, study will help provide information on the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. Furthermore, the study while provide vital information policy makers of the Medina municipality and all other stakeholders of the Medina community. Finally the study while produce information to will add on to existing literature for further studies in this area. 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study Due to time and resource constrains, this study is restricted particularly to the Medina community. The study focuses on the factors that account for the growth of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this change on the people of Medina among others. The study is limited in scope because it fails to cover the entire population of Ghana. The findings of this study may therefore lack generalizability as far as other communities in Ghana are concern. 1.7 Organization of the Study Chapter 1 deals with the background of the study, the problem statement, objectives of the study, justification of the study and organization of the study. Chapter 2 reviews both theoretical and empirical literatures on SMEs in general, in Ghana among others. Chapter 3 introduces the study area and describes the methodologies used to analyze the problems stated. It includes the methods used for data collection, and procedure for data analysis. Chapter 4 is devoted to presentation and discussion of results. Summary statistics of the variables used in the study are presented and discussed. Chapter 5 winds up this study drawing conclusions, their policy implications. Suggestions for future research based on the findings are made. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews works on small and medium enterprises in the world, Africa and Ghana. The state of SMEs in Ghana is reviewed here. Also, Works on performance and determinants of performance of SMEs are captured. Furthermore, a section of this chapter assesses the various methods of measuring performance of SMEs which while help open up the understanding of the state of SMEs in Medina. Finally, this chapter closes with some migration theories to help facilitate the comprehension of the factors that actually account for human migration, in this case migration to Medina. 2.2 Definitions and Concepts of SMEs There is no single, uniformly acceptable, definition of a small firm (Storey, 1994). Firms differ in their levels of capitalization, sales and employment. Hence, definitions that employ measures of size (number of employees, turnover, profitability, net worth, etc.) when applied to one sector could lead to all firms being classified as small, while the same size definition when applied to a different sector could lead to a different result. The first attempt to overcome this definition problem was by the Bolton Committee (1971) when they formulated an â€Å"economic† and a â€Å"statistical† definition. Under the economic definition, a firm is regarded as small if it meets the following three criteria: i. It has a relatively small share of their market place; ii. It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; iii. It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. The Committee also devised a â€Å"statistical† definition to be used in three main areas: a. Quantifying the size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc.; b. Comparing the extent to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; c. Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. Thus, the Bolton Committee employed different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. 2.2.1 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Economic† Definition of SMEs A number of weaknesses were identified with the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"economic† and `statistical’ definitions. First, the economic definition which states that a small business is managed by its owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formal management structure, is incompatible with its statistical definition of small manufacturing firms which could have up to 200 employees. As firm size increases, owners no longer make principal decisions but devolve responsibility to a team of managers. For example, it is unlikely for a firm with hundred employees to be managed in a personalized way, suggesting that the `economic’ and `statistical’ definitions are incompatible. Another shortcoming of the Bolton Committee’s economic definition is that it considers small firms to be operating in a perfectly competitive market. However, the idea of perfect competition may not apply here; many small firms occupy `niches’ and provide a highly specialized service or product in a geographically isolated area and do not perceive any clear competition (Wynarczyk et al, 1993; Storey, 1994). Alternatively, Wynarczyk et al (1993) identified the characteristics of the small firm other than size. They argued that there are three ways of differentiating between small and large firms. The small firm has to deal with: (a) Uncertainty associated with being a price taker; (b) Limited customer and product base; (c) Uncertainty associated with greater diversity of objectives as compared with large firms. As Storey (1994) stated, there are three key distinguishing features between large and small firms. Firstly, the greater external uncertainty of the environment in which the small firm operates and the greater internal consistency of its motivations and actions. Secondly, they have a different role in innovation. Small firms are able to produce something marginally different, in terms of product or service, which differs from the standardized product or service provided by large firms. A third area of distinction between small and large firms is the greater likelihood of evolution and change in the smaller firm; small firms that become large undergo a number of stage changes. 2.2.2 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Statistical† Definition of SMEs (i) No single definition or criteria was used for â€Å"smallness†, (number of employees, turnover, ownership and assets were used instead) (ii) Three different upper limits of turnover were specified for the different sectors and two different upper limits were identified for number of employees. (iii) Comparing monetary units over time requires construction of index numbers to take account of price changes. Moreover, currency fluctuations make international comparison more difficult. (iv) The definition considered the small firm sector to be homogeneous; however, firms may grow from small to medium and in some cases to large. It was against this background that the European Commission (EC) coined the term `Small and Medium Enterprises (SME)’. The SME sector is made up of three components: (i) Firms with 0 to 9 employees micro enterprises (ii) 10 to 99 employees small enterprises (iii) 100 to 499 employees medium enterprises. Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises, which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firm’s upper limit is more appropriate given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous, that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. However, the EC definition is too all embracing for a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms that are more appropriate to their particular `target’ group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile unless size is a factor that influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the impact of a credit programme o n a targeted group (also refer to Storey, 1994). 2.2.3 Alternative Definitions of SMEs World Bank since 1976 Firms with fixed assets (excluding land) less than US$ 250,000 in value are Small Scale Enterprises. Grindle et al (1988) Small scale enterprises are firms with less than or equal to 25 permanent members and with fixed assets (excludingland) worth up to US$ 50,000. USAID in the 1990s Firms with less than 50 employees and at least half the output is sold (also refer to Mead, 1984). UNIDO’s Definition for Developing Countries: Large firms with 100+ workers Medium firms with 20 99 workers Small firms with 5 19 workers Micro firms with 5 workers UNIDO’s Definition for Industrialized Countries: Large firms with 500+ workers Medium firms with 100 499 workers Small firms with ≠¤99 workers From the various definitions above, it can be said that there is no unique definition for a small and medium scale enterprise thus, an operational definition is required. 2.2.4 Definitions SMEs in Ghana Small Scale enterprises have been variously defined, but the most commonly used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise. In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources. As contained in its Industrial Statistics, The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with less than 10 employees as Small Scale Enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as Medium and Large-Sized Enterprises. Ironically, The GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as Small and Medium Enterprises (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). An alternate criterion used in defining small and medium enterprises is the value of fixed assets in the organization. However, the National Board of Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the `fixed asset and number of employees’ criteria. It defines a Small Scale Enterprise as one with not more than 9 workers, has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 million Cedis (US$ 9506, using 1994 exchange rate) (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC) on the other hand uses a 10 million Cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. A point of caution is that the process of valuing fixed assets in itself poses a problem. Secondly, the continuous depreciation in the exchange rate often makes such definitions out-dated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Steel and Webster (1990), Osei et al (1993) in defining Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana used an employment cut off point of 30 employees to indicate Small Scale Enterprises. The latter however dis-aggregated small scale enterprises into 3 categories: (i) micro -employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small, those employing 6-9 people; (iii) small -between 10 and 29 employees. 2.3 Why Small and Medium Scale Enterprises? The choice of small and medium scale enterprises within the industrial sector for this study is based on the following propositions (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). (a) Large Scale Industry (i) Have not been an engine of growth and a good provider of employment; (ii) Already receive enormous support through general trade, finance, tax policy and direct subsidies; (b) Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (i) Mobilize funds which otherwise would have been idle; (ii) Have been recognized as a seed-bed for indigenous entrepreneurship; (iii) Are labour intensive, employing more labour per unit of capital than large enterprises; (iv) Promote indigenous technological know-how; (vii) Are able to compete (but behind protective barriers); (viii) Use mainly local resources, thus have less foreign exchange requirements; (ix) Cater for the needs of the poor and; (x) Adapt easily to customer requirements (flexible specialization), (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). 2.4.0 The Role and Characteristics of SMEs 2.4.1 Role of SMEs in Developing Countries Small-scale rural and urban enterprises have been one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries. It is estimated that SMEs employ 22% of the adult population in developing countries (Daniels Ngwira, 1992; Daniels Fisseha, 1993; Fisseha, 1992; Fisseha McPherson, 1991; Gallagher Robson, 1995). However, some authors have contended that the job creating impact of small scale enterprises is a statistical flaw; it does not take into account offsetting factors that make the net impact more modest (Biggs, Grindle Snodgrass, 1988). It is argued that increases in employment of Small and Medium Enterprises are not always associated with increases in productivity. Nevertheless, the important role performed by these enterprises cannot be overlooked. Small firms have some advantages over their large-scale competitors. They are able to adapt more easily to market conditions given their broadly skilled technologies. However, narrowing the analysis down to developing countries raises the following puzzle: Do small-scale enterprises have a dynamic economic role? Due to their flexible nature, SMEs are able to withstand adverse economic conditions. They are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore, have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier Seibel, 1987; Liedholm Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). Small-scale enterprises (SSEs) perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to the more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Because of their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued that small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus, facilitating long term economic growth. 2.4.2 Characteristics of SMEs in Ghana A distinguishing feature of SMEs from larger firms is that the latter have direct access to international and local capital markets whereas the former are excluded because of the higher intermediation costs of smaller projects. In addition, SMEs face the same fixed cost as Large Scale Enterprises (LSEs) in complying with regulations but have limited capacity to market products abroad. SMEs in Ghana can be categorised into urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into `organised’ and `unorganised’ enterprises. The organised ones tend to have paid employees with a registered office whereas the unorganised category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home and employ little or in some cases no salaried workers. They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production of local crops. The major activities within this sector include:- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical based products and mechanics ( Liedholm Mead, 1987; Osei et al, 1993, World Bank, 1992). It is interesting to note that small-scale enterprises make better use of scarce resources than large-scale enterprises. Research in Ghana and many other countries have shown that capital productivity is often higher in SMEs than is the case with LSEs (Steel, 1977). The reason for this is not difficult to see, SMEs are labour intensive with very small amount of capital invested. Thus, they tend to witness high capital productivity, which is an economically sound investment. Thus, it has been argued that promoting the SME sector in developing countries will create more employment opportunities, lead to a more equitable distribution of income, and will ensure increased productivity with better technology (Steel Webster, 1990). 2.5 SME Approaches There are several approaches or theories to entrepreneurship and small and medium enterprises. For the purpose of this study, the research team will dwell on three major theories. These include: venture opportunity, Agency Theory and Theory of Equity Funds 2.5.1 The Venture Opportunity The venture opportunity school of thought focuses on the opportunity aspect of venture development. The search for idea sources, the development of concepts; and the implementation of venture opportunities are the important interest areas for this school. Creativity and market awareness are viewed as essential. Additionally, according to this school of thought, developing the right idea at the right time for the right market niche is the key to entrepreneurial success. Major proponents include: N Krueger 1993, Long W. McMullan 1984. Another development from this school of thought is what is described by McMullan (1984) as â€Å"corridor principle’’. This principle outlines that, giving prior attention to new pathways or opportunities as they arise and implementing the necessary steps for action are key factors in business development. The maxim that â€Å"preparation meeting opportunity, equals â€Å"luck† underlines this corridor principle. Proponents of this school of thought believe that proper preparation in the interdisciplinary business segments will enhance the ability to recognise good venture opportunities. Comparing the study with the above theory, the question that arises is: What are the factors or opportunities that have led to the proliferation of small and medium scale enterprises in Medina Township? Is it due to a particular market niche, creativity or market awareness? If so, then what socio-economic impact do they have on the people of Medina Township? 2.5.2 Agency Theory Agency theory deals with the people who own a business enterprise and all others who have interests in it, for example managers, banks, creditors, family members, and employees. The agency theory postulates that the day to day running of a business enterprise is carried out by managers as agents who have been engaged by the owners of the business as principals who are also known as shareholders. The theory is on the notion of the principle of two-sided transactions which holds that any financial transactions involves two parties, both acting in their own best interests, but with different expectations. Major proponents of this theory include: Eisenhardt 1989, Emery et al.1991 and JH Davis – 1997. These Proponents of agency theory assume that agents will always have a personal interest which conflicts the interest of the principal. This is usually referred to as the Agency problem. 2.5.3 Theory of Equity Funds Equity is also known as owners equity, capital, or net worth. Costand et al (1990) suggests that larger firms will use greater levels of debt financing than small firms. This implies that larger firms will rely relatively less on equity financing than do smaller firms’. According to the pecking order framework, the small enterprises have two problems when it comes to equity funding [McMahon et al. (1993, pp153)]: 1) Small enterprises usually do not have the option of issuing additional equity to the public. 2) Owner-managers are strongly averse to any dilution of their ownership interest and control. This way they are unlike the managers of large concerns who usually have only a limited degree of control and limited, if any, ownership interest, and are therefore prepared to recognize a broader range of funding options. Modern financial management is not the ultimate answer to every whim and caprice. However, it could be argued that there is some food for thought for SMEs concerning every concept. For example Access to Capital is really eye-opener for SMEs in Ghana to carve their way into sustaining their growth. 2.6 Policies for Promoting SMEs in Ghana Small-scale enterprise promotion in Ghana was not impressive in the 1960s. Dr. Nkrumah (President of the First Republic) in his modernization efforts emphasized state participation but did not encourage the domestic indigenous sector. The local entrepreneurship was seen as a potential political threat. To worsen the situation, the deterioration in the Balance of Payments in the 1980s and the overvaluation of the exchange rate led to reduce capacity utilization in the import dependent large-scale sector. Rising inflation and falling real wages also forced many formal sector employees into secondary self-employment in an attempt to earn a decent income. As the economy declined, large-scale manufacturing employment stagnated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). According to Steel and Webster (1991), small scale and self-employment grew by 2.9% per annum (ten times as many jobs as large scale employment) but their activities accounted for only a third of the value added. It was in the light of the above that the government of Ghana started promoting small-scale enterprises. They were viewed as the mechanism through which a transition from state-led economy to a private oriented developmental strategy could be achieved. Thus the SME sector’s role was re-defined to include the following (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000): (i) Assisting the state in reducing its involvement in direct production (ii) Absorbing labour from the state sector, given the relatively labour intensive nature of small scale enterprises, and; (iii) Developing indigenous entrepreneurial and managerial skills needed for sustained industrialization. 2.6.1 Government and Institutional Support to SMEs To enable the sector perform its role effectively, the following technical, institutional and financial supports were put in place by government. (i) Government Government, in an attempt to strengthen the response of the private sector to economic reforms undertook a number of measures in 1992. Prominent among them is the setting up of the Private Sector Advisory Group and the abolition of the Manufacturing Industries Act, 1971 (Act 356) that repealed a number of price control laws, and The Investment Code of 1985 (PNDC Law 116), which seeks to promote joint ventures between foreign and local investors. In addition to the above, a Legislative Instrument on Immigrant Quota, which grants automatic immigrant quota for investors, has been enacted. Besides, certain Technology Transfer Regulations have been introduced. Government also provided equipment leasing, an alternative and flexible source of long term financing of plant and equipment for enterprises that cannot afford their own. A Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme was also set up for entrepreneurs who have inadequate or no collateral and has limited access to bank credit. To complement these efforts, a Rural Finance Project aimed at providing long-term credit to small-scale farmers and artisans was set up. In 1997, government proposed the establishment of an Export Development and Investment Fund (EDIF), operational under the Exim Guarantee Company Scheme of the Bank of Ghana. This was in aid of industrial and export services within the first quarter of 1998. To further improve the industrial sector, according to the 1998 Budget Statement, specific attention was to be given to the following industries for support in accessing the EDIF for rehabilitation and retooling: Textiles/Garments; Wood and Wood Processing; Food and Food Processing and Packaging. It was also highlighted that government would support industries with export potential to overcome any supply-based difficulty by accessing EDIF and rationalize the tariff regime in a bid to improve their export competitiveness. In addition, a special monitoring mechanism has been developed at the Ministry of Trade and Industries. In a bid to improve trade and investment, particularly in the industrial sector, trade and investment facilitating measures were put in place. Visas for all categories of investors and tourists were issued on arrival at the ports of entry while the Customs Excise and Preventive Service at the ports were made proactive, operating 7-days a week. The government continued supporting programmes aimed at skills training, registration and placement of job seekers, training and re-training of redeployees. This resulted in a 5% rise in enrolment in the various training institutes such as The National Vocational and Training Institute (NVTI), Opportunity Industrialization Centres (OIC), etc. As at the end of 1997, 65,830 out of 72,000 redeployees who were re-trained under master craftsmen have been provided with tools and have become self-employed. (ii) Institutions The idea of SME promotion has been in existence since 1970 though very little was done at the time. Key institutions were set up to assist SMEs and prominent among them was The Office of Business Promotion, now the present Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC). It aims at assisting Ghanaian businessmen to enter into fields where foreigners mainly operated but which became available to Ghanaians after the ‘Alliance Compliance Order’ in 1970. GEDC also had packages for strengthening small-scale industry in general, both technically and financially. The Economic Recovery Programme instituted in 1983 has broadened the institutional support for SMEs. The National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) has been established within the then Ministry of Industry, Science and Technology now (Ministry of Science and Technology) to address the needs of small businesses. The NBSSI established an Entrepreneurial Development Programme, intended to train and assist persons with entrepreneurial abilities into self-employment. In 1987, the industrial sector also witnessed the coming into operation of the Ghana Appropriate Technology Industrial Service (GRATIS). It was to supervise the operations of Intermediate Technology Transfer Units (ITTUs) in the country. GRATIS aims at upgrading small scale industrial concerns by transferring appropriate technology to small scale and informal industries at the grass root level. ITTUs in the regions are intended to develop the engineering abilities of small scale manufacturing and service industries engaged in vehicle repairs and other related trades. They are also to address the needs of non-engineering industries. So far, 6 ITTUs have been set up in Cape Coast, Ho, Kumasi, Sunyani, Tamale and Tema. (iii) Financial Assistance Access to credit has been one of the main bottlenecks to SME development. Most SMEs lack the necessary collateral to obtain bank loans. To address this issue, the Central Bank of Ghana has established a credit guarantee scheme to underwrite loans made by Commercial Banks to small-scale enterprises. Unfortunately, the scheme did not work out as expected. It was against this background that the Bank of Ghana obtained a US$ 28 million credit from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank for the establishment of a Fund for Small and Medium Enterprises Development (FUSMED). Under the Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Cost of Adjustment (PAMSCAD), a revolving fund of US$ 2 million was set aside to assist SMEs. This aspect is too scanty in the midst of the abundant information, especially with reference to Ghana. 2.7 Gender and Small Business Performance Until more recently gender differences in small business performance remained largely unaddressed by social scientists (Greene, Hart, Gatewood, Brush, Carter, 2003). The majority of studies either disregarded gender as a variable of interest or excluded female subjects from their design (Du Rietz Henrekson, 2000). However, it is generally accepted that male and female owner-managers behave differently and that these behavioral differences influence their performance (Brush, 1992), but these differences have been recognized but not fully explained (Brush Hisrich 2000). A comparison of performance of male and female owner-managers in Java, Indonesia showed that female-owned businesses tend to be less oriented towards growth compared to male-owned businesses (Singh, Reynolds, Muhammad, 2001). Boden Nucci (2000) investigated start-ups in the retail and service industries and found that the mean survival rate for male owned businesses was four to six percent higher than for female owned businesses. Loscocco, Robinson, Hall Allen (1991) in their study of small businesses in the New England region of the USA found that both sales volume and income levels were lower for female- than for male-owned businesses. In a longitudinal study of 298 small firms in the United Kingdom (UK), of which 67 were female owned, Johnson Storey (1994) observed that whilst female owner-managers had more stable enterprises than their male counterparts, on average the sales turnover for female owners were lower than for male owners. Brush (1992) suggests that women perform less on quantitative financial measures such as jobs created, sales turnover and profitability because they pursue intrinsic goals such as independence, and the flexibility to combine family and work commitments rather than financial gain. In contrast to the above findings, Du Rietz and Henrekson (2000) reported that female-owned businesses were just as successful as their male counterparts when size and sector are controlled. In his study of small and medium firms in Australia, Watson (2002), after controlling for the effect of industry sector, age of the business, and the number of days of operation, also reported no significant differences in performance between the male- controlled and female-controlled firms.

Progress learners have made and identify learning needs

Progress learners have made and identify learning needs In this reflective assignment I have chosen to explore standard Q28: Support learners to reflect on their learning, identify ; focusing specifically on the integration of metacognitive strategies into a sequence of lessons. These strategies included making peer and self-evaluation an established part of every lesson. Making pupils aware of what they have learnt, mirroring pupils responses, and modelling exemplary metacognitive thought processes by thinking out loud. The essence of metacognition is thinking about thinking; having an awareness of what you already know and what you do not know, knowing how to learn and acquire new knowledge, knowing which strategies to use and when to use them (Wilson Bai, 2010). Metacognitive skills can be taught to pupils of any age and ability, and research has shown that pupils with metacognitive skills perform better in school (Sternberg, 1998). The reason I am interested in cultivating metacognition is because it improves pupils critical thinking skills (Ku Ho, 2010). In order to teach metacognitive skills the teacher must first create a learning environment in which pupils are expected to participate in reflective and evaluative activities (Leat Lin, 2007). The metacognitive strategies were trialled with a class of thirty top-set Year 8 girls over a period of two weeks (six lessons); coinciding with the start of a new science topic: Chemical Reactions and Materials. At the start of the first lesson pupils were given a self-evaluation checklist for all of the concepts they were going to be taught during the following sequence of lessons. They were then given the opportunity to write down any prior knowledge of these concepts, and to tick off any they felt confident with already. Pupils were instructed to place the checklist at the front of their files for use later on in the lesson and during the rest of the unit. A three-stage self-evaluation framework was devised in order to promote pupils metacognition at well-defined point within each lesson. At the start of each lesson all pupils were expected to record the learning objectives (as communicated by the teacher) in the appropriate space on the checklist. Approximately two-thirds of the way through the lesson, pupils were told to consider whether or not they were meeting the learning objectives. Pupils used a traffic light system of red, orange and green coloured pages within their planners to communicate their responses to the teacher. Pupils not meeting learning objectives were asked to write down what actions they would have to take in order to meet them At the end each lesson pupils were given time to identify what they had learnt and how they would address areas of weakness. When planning fifty minute lessons, thirty percent of the total lesson time had to be allocated to the three five-minute self-evaluation stages. In hindsight, it may have been a more efficient use of time to either self-evaluate every other lesson, or to assign self-evaluation as part of the class regular homework. Starting and ending lessons with a metacognitive task is commensurate with the three-part lesson structure of starter, main and plenary that seems to be in vogue. Placing a metacognitive task in the midst of a lesson may appear to disrupt the natural flow, but the anticipated change to an habitual task could serve as an opportunity for some pupils to refocus their attention and make better use of the remaining lesson time than they otherwise may have done. During the first lesson in the sequence the introduction and explanation of the self-evaluation system required a significant portion of the lesson time. I dont think there would have been any way around this. I had anticipated that during each of the subsequent lessons pupils would become more accustomed to the system and would therefore need less guidance. However, some pupils had been absent from the initial lesson in which the system was introduced and required additional teacher time to bring them up to speed. I dont think that this would be an issue if the system had been implemented over a significantly longer time scale, as pupils would inevitably become familiar with the format of checklist and how and when to fill it in independently. In addition, various pupils would either lose or forget to bring their checklists to lessons, hence requiring replacement checklists and losing information which they should have accumulated. For these pupils it is clear that they would not be in a position to reap the full benefits of completing the self-evaluations when the time came to prepare for their end of unit test. I think that all of the pupils had a degree of appreciation for the potential benefits of this system, but some more so than others. During the Year 8 consultation evening several parents provided positive comments after having noticed the checklists in the childs file. The general feeling was that the parents approved of pupils thinking critically about their own learning. At the end of the sequence of lessons, pupils who had been regularly completing the self-evaluation checklist were able to easily identify gaps in their learning. These gaps could then be addressed during revision the time allocated to prepare for the end of unit test. I think that if I had been teaching practical lessons, and in this unit there werent any, I would have found it much more difficult to allocate a time slot for self-evaluation during the lesson. This three-part framework is clearly an explicit means of artificially imposing a metacognitive activity upon the pupils. However, it is a usual part of my every day teaching style to think out loud, and to encourage pupils to do the same when answering problems. This is an established technique for enhancing pupils metacognitive abilities, which I find comes quite naturally. By thinking out loud the teacher is modelling the sort of processes, lines of reasoning, and questions which they are pursuing and asking themselves in order to reach the solution to a problem. By mimicking an exemplar under the guidance and elicitation of the teacher, pupils can assimilate this skill and apply it independently. I think that pupils often do not know how to tackle a problem for which they down know the answer immediately off hand. Some will just sit there and wait for the teacher to come over to them and intervene. Others would unthinkingly throw their hand into the air and expect to be told the answer straight away. It is often frustrating when I discover that a pupil hasnt even attempted to form an approach to finding an answer. Without explicit training most wont automatically know the sorts of questions they need to be asking of themselves, and are far too easily waylaid or disheartened by perceived unfamiliarity when a known problem is placed in an alternative context. I was not been able to gauge or quantify pupils metacognitive skill and I think this could be the basis of an interesting research enquiry, however, I did notice that pupils were generally more persistent after the sequence of lessons. Particular pupils who previously would have given up straight away were at least attempt ing to engage problems more before asking for assistance. I think that metacognitive ability is intrinsically linked with pupils motivation and self-efficacy. In my experience, pupils who are not sure how to approach a problem can attribute this inability to their own incompetence, which will invariably initiate a cycle of negative feedback with their self-esteem. Working with such pupils on an individual basis I was able to give them the confidence and necessary individualised scaffolding to attempt unfamiliar problems. I often began by asking them to think out loud so that I could see exactly how they were approaching a particular problem. I would then ask them if they could think of an alternative way to approach the same problem, or to ask one of their friends how they would approach the same problem. This has been an approach which I have always taken, but during this series of lesson I have placed a lot more emphasis on pupils sharing their thought processes with each other e.g. via a think, pair, share style activity. As a consequence of having taught a series of lessons with a strong emphasis on simple metacognitive strategies, I am motivated to continue using these strategies and to seek out new ones which complement or supersede them.

Mike F. Doyle House Representative of PE :: essays research papers

Michael F. Doyle is a House Representative in Pennsylvania. Doyle represents the 14 district which includes the city of Pittsburg and most of Allegheny County. Doyle is now serving his fifth term in congress. Doyle’s top priority is to create jobs, preserve social security and Medicare, provide better public education, meet the needs of senior citizens, establish long-term energy strategy, and to promote a better climate for the high-tech community. Doyle was born on august 5, 1953 in Pittsburg PA. Mike Doyle has a wife, Susan Doyle and 4 children, whose ages are 18, 14, 12, and 5. Doyle was first elected to office November 8, 1994 to the Democratic party. The last time Doyle was elected was November 2, 2004. Doyle went to B.S. Community Development and Penn State University, where he received a Bachelor of Science degree in Community Development in 1975. Doyle is licensed in life, accident, health, property, and casualty insurance. In July, 2004 Doyle had called for a legislation to prevent massive power blackouts like the one that hit the northeast this past year. In August 14, 2003, a massive power outage affected more than 50 million people in eight different stats, Ontario, and Quebec in Canada. Many households were without power for several days. This blackout began in Ohio, where three transmission lines short-circuited. An investigation found that the energy company that owned those power lines was in violation of at least four North Electric Reliability Council operating standards. Doyle introduced almost a year ago a legislation that would establish a national Electric Reliability Organization to enforce power reliability standards across the country. If an organization was to be established it Amer Gov/Easter  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Chris Zane Mike F. Doyle House of Rep of PA  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   12/23/04 would go a long way towards improving the reliability of the power grid and reduce the likelihood of a future blackout. Doyle’s plan was named H.R. 3004 and was introduced on September 23, 2003. Unfortunately, H.R. 3004 has been stalled for months, and the House leadership has suddenly refused to consider it. In October, 2004 Doyle announced that he is working to promise that Congress passes a legislation to improve the supply of flu vaccine before the supply runs out later this year. Doyle has asked that he be added as a cosponsor of the Flu Protection Act. The legislation would offer tax credit for the expansion of flu vaccine production facilities, and would offer a government buy-back guarantee for the vaccine makers who end up with extra flu vaccine doses at the end of the flu season.

Tom Sawyer Essay -- essays research papers

Tom Sawyer Tom Sawyer was a boy, not one of the sort that you read about in good books, but a little devil, never malicious and always at some trick, and in the course of years he engaged in a multitude, all of which are here recorded in Twain's style. He had special aversions for church, Sunday school, pious people, devout conversation and the company of his sedate but good old aunt. In spite of his efforts to escape from such inflictions he had to suffer them once in a while, but in his efforts to get some diversion on such occasions he more than once made lively sensations. Too lazy to get his Sunday school lessons, he managed by sharp trading to buy up a lot of the tickets given to the best pupils, and when a distinguished visitor came the children were requested to step forward with their tickets so that the one who had the most should receive the prize. To the astonishment of all Tom Sawyer was the hero, and, after a great time had been made over him, the visitor thought Tom should have a chance to show his learning, so he asked him who were the first two of the twelve Apostles to follow Jesus, it being presumed that the prize boy knew such things perfectly, for the lesson of the term had been in the study of the four Gospels. Tom felt the necessity of giving some answer, and his was "David and Goliath," to the surprise of the visitor, the consternation of the head teacher and the amusement of the school. When Tom went to church he took a large snapping bug...

No Universal Truth Essay -- Philosophy Religion Essays

No Universal Truth Hume wrote, â€Å"be a philosopher; but, amidst all your philosophy, be still a man,† (qtd. in Jones 351). This statement strikes me more than all others, written by Hume or any of the philosophers from W. T. Jones’ Hobbes to Hume. It demonstrates to me that even after all of the inquisition towards what and how we can know anything, and the very methodical ways in which Hume is reputed to examine these things, he realizes that nothing is truly certain and begins to lean towards a pragmatic and radically empirical point of view. It is, therefore, also my conclusion that, as much as we may aspire to find the universal, indubitable, and objective truth, none of it can be proven to be universal, indubitable, and objective. In support of this view—the â€Å"abandonment of the quest for certainty, acceptance of provisional solutions as long as they work, and readiness to discard them when changing conditions make them no longer appropriate†Ã¢â‚¬â€I will endeavor to briefly examine substance, the self, and the presumed necessary connection of ideas or events (Jones 349). By applying his own empirical criterion of meaning to the examination of such a notably philosophical concept as substance, Hume flat out disposes of the entire notion itself. As has been formerly introduced by Descartes, substance is a fluctuating thing that takes on the same meaning as is best described by that certain je ne sais quoi. It is that certain something you just can’t put your finger on, and â€Å"by substance, we can understand nothing else than a thing which so exists that it needs no other thing in order to exist,â€Å" (qtd. in Jones 174-175). Descartes naturally takes this thing to be God, but never questions the meaning of God or substance a... ... and finally removes reasons for the existence of any connection between any of the ideas which we as a species have always held as being related. Hume also refutes any reason to believe in the existence of an external world, or a world without us, which has not been discussed here. In the end, there is really no reason to believe in the existence of existence, if Hume’s deductions are to be taken quite so seriously. Of course, if that were to be done, none could live as they do. Since Hume himself is concerned with a philosophy that concerns the everyday individual, not even he can truly accept that nothing exists. It is when he reaches this point himself that he realizes one can â€Å"be a philosopher; but, amidst all your philosophy, be still a man,† (qtd. in Jones 351). Works Cited Jones, W. T. Hobbes to Hume. 2nd edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1980.

Lifespan Development Essay

Lifespan development, also known as human development, is a field of study that is devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout a person’s lifespan (Berk, 2010). Lifespan development begins with infancy and looks at several points in a person’s life in which significant change takes place. The study of children did not begin until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Berk, 2010). Throughout the years, there was much speculation about how people grow and change and when combined with research, theories of development surfaced. These theories were vital and provided organized frameworks for observations of people and they are verified by research and provide a basis for practical action (Berk, 2010). Many theories developed to study the development of infants and children through out life and these theories continue to have an impact on society and research today. There are many notable development researchers and schools of thought such as Locke, Rousseau, Arnold Gesell, Ivan Pavlov, Lawrence Kohlberg, Social Learning Theory, Stages of Moral Development, and Ethiological Theories just to name a few (Crain, 2005). There are some researchers and schools of thought who still have an impact today such as Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution, Jean Piaget and his Cognitive-Developmental theory, and the Psychoanalytic theory first developed by Sigmund Freud. Charles Darwin is significant to developmental studies today because it was he who paved the way, or opened the door for the many schools of thought that followed. Darwin is known as the forefather of scientific child study (Berk, 2010). Darwin was a naturalist who observed the variation among plant and animal species but along with that, he also noticed that within a specific species, no two individuals were alike (Berk, 2010). Darwin developed his theory which emphasized the principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest. Darwin’s theory stated that certain species survive in particular environments because they have characteristics that fit with or are adapted to their surroundings (Berk, 2010). Those within the species that best meet the survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and keep the species going (Berk, 2010). Darwin, in his travels and research, noticed some similarities in prenatal growth among species. Darwin noted that the embryos of most species are highly similar in their early forms revealing their descent from a common ancestor (Crain, 2005). Today, in the broad scheme of things, Darwin’s theory is correct in that there is variation within species and only some survive long enough to reproduce and pass along traits. What Darwin did not understand was the mechanisms underlying the transmission of traits (Crain, 2005). Because of this, Darwin is considered the starting point for the vast amount of research done on lifespan development. Another important aspect of the study of lifespan development is the Cognitive-Developmental theory of Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory stated that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Berk, 2010). Piaget did not believe that a child’s learning depended on reinforcers as the behaviorists believed. Piaget developed stages and he realized that children pass through his stages at different rates and did not pay specific attention to the ages at the various stages but noted that they all pass through the stages in the same order (Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory consisted of four periods: Sensorimotor Intelligence (birth to 2 years), Preoperational Thought (2 to 7), Concrete Operations (7 to 11), and Formal Operations (11 to adulthood) (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget was able to convince people that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge (Berk, 2010). Piaget’s research influenced much of the research today that focuses on children’s concept of self, other people, and human relationships. Many educational philosophies and programs that place emphasis on discovery learning and direct contact were encouraged by Piaget’s theory (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory did not come without criticism and challenges. Some researchers believe that Piaget actually underestimated the competencies of children. This called for much research to be conducted to challenge and refute Piaget’s theory and also to find ways to expound upon and improve his theory. The most influential school of thought is that of the Psychoanalytic perspective developed by Sigmund Freud. This perspective states that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. (Berk, 2010). The school of thought basically focused on the fact that psychological change is governed by inner forces such as feelings, impulses, and fantasies (Crain, 2005). Freud had all of his patients use free association in their sessions allowing them to talk freely about the painful events of their childhood (Berk, 2010). Freud developed the psychosexual theory based on theiry unconscious thoughts. This theory states that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory was considered the first to place importance on the influence of the early parent-child relationship and its involvement in development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory received much criticism because he did not study children directly and was heavy on the sexual influences in development (Crain, 2005). The controversy surrounding this particular school of thought, prompted much research making it one of, if not the influential theories in development. Research on the many aspects of emotional and social development which includes infant-caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity grew from the theory of Freud (Berk, 2010). There are many different ways in which development is researched. One way is systematic observation. There are different ways in which observations of children and adults can be conducted. Some researchers choose to go into the field or the natural environment and record the behavior which is known as naturalistic observation (Berk, 2010). Through naturalistic observation, researchers are able to get a first hand look at the subjects. On the other side though, some people may not display the same behavior in their everyday life. Structured observations happen when the researcher sets up a laboratory situation that evokes behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response (Berk, 2010). The ways that the research is gathered varies depending on what is being researched. Systematic observations tell how people actually behave but fail to provide the reasons behind the behavior. Self-reports allow participants to provide information on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, and other things of that nature. They are normally structured interviews, unstructured interviews, questionnaires, and tests. Clinical interviews allow for researchers to use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view (Berk, 2010). Structured interviews, which includes tests and questionnaires, asks all participants the same set of questions (Berk, 2010). They are easier to score and the researchers are able to identify a behavior of interest because the participants is given alternatives in answer choices. The case study methods brings together a wide range of information on one person, including interviews, observations, and test scores (Berk, 2010). This method is generally used when one wants to study a particular group that may be small in size but varies in characteristics. This method can be viewed as bias because the information that is collected is sometimes done unsystematically and is subjective and geared toward the researchers theoretical perspective. There are other ways of studying development such as ethnography which is aimed at studying a culture as a whole or a distinct social group through participant observation. Ethics plays a major role in the study of development as well. It is important to consider things such as the rights of the participants. This includes, protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of the result, and beneficial treatments (Berk, 2010). Informed consent is especially important because it provides safeguards for children and elderly people who are cognitively impaired or have to be cared for in settings for the chronically ill (Berk, 2010). Research generally creates ethical issues because of the search for scientific knowledge and at the same time has the opportunity to exploit people. References Berk, L.E. (2010). Development through the lifespan. (5th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall